Historical review 5.1.11

Keystone species:

influence greater than relative abundance

ex: predator keeps herbivore pop down, preserves rare grass

Biomes:

terrestrial, freshwater, marine

latitude, humidity, elevation-terrestrial

freshwater:

rivers, wetlands and basins (deeper than what they serve)

marine:

neritic -close to shelf

benthic-deep, sloping away from con shelf

pelagic-open sea

abyssal-very deep

hadal-trenches

food webs:

connections of energy from producer to consumer

trophic pyramid (see plankton to ahi, bioaccumulation biomagnification)

primary producers: autotrophs-photosynthetic plants, chemotrophic (sulfur)-inorganic sources (also foundation species)

heterotrophs-get energy from organic sources:

herbivores, carnivores, scavengers

lots of energy lost between trophic levels (thermodynamics)

ecosystems-

abiotic environment

producers-autotrophs, e.g. plants

consumers-heterotrophs, e.g. herbivores, canrivores

decomposers-detritovores

photosynthesis-

CO2, water, light into organic compounds (e.g. sugars)

photoautotrophs-plants

carbon fixation (redox rx) reduction is CO2 to CHO

chlorophyll, carotenes and xanthophylls

cellular respiration-

conversion of energy to ATP (phosphate bonds)

glucose, amino acids and fatty acids with O2 as an oxidizer (accepts electrons) OIL RIG

aerobic and anaerobic metabolysis (aerobic is 19x more efficient)

TCA cycle, mitochondria

biodiversity-

variation of life forms within a biome or ecosystem

genetic

species

ecosystem

creates stability and robustness in ecosystems

biogeochemical cycles (nutrient cycles)

how an element or molecule travels through biotic (living things) and abiotic (earth, air, water) parts of earth

reservoirs may differ: N2 in air, P in soil

closed system: C N O P

open system: energy, e.g. photosynthesis

cycles:

carbon

nitrogen

oxygen

phosphorus

water

also mercury and atrazine (herbicide)

GM crops

genetic engineering vs. selective breeding or mutation breeding

concerns: ecological, economic (LDC) and IP rights (see Monsanto)

uses restriction enzymes to ID and isolate genes

inserted using gene gun (plasmid) or agrobacterium

GMO

insertion or deletion of genes

recombinant DNA, transgenic organisms

if no DNA from other species, cisgenic (cis vs trans)

lentiviruses-can transfer genes to animal cells

Genentech-Berkeley 1978, created human insulin from E. Coli (vs. cow or pig insulin)

pesticides-

biological, chemical, antimicrobial, disinfectant

pests: pathogens, insects, weeds, mullosks, birds, mammals, fish, nematodes and microbes

any food competitor or spoiler, also disease vectors

herbicides-glyphosate (roundup)

insecticides-HCl, carbamates, pyrethrins, etc.

green fungicides-paldoxins

EPA regulates

banned: carcinogenic, mutagenic or bioaccumulators

see also NRDC

pesticide laws-

Federal insecticide act-1910

Federal insecticide, fungicide and rodenticide act (FIFRA)-1947 then 1972, 1988

1947-ag dept

1972-EPA

3 categories: antimicrobials, biopesticides, conventional

forest management-

silviculture, protection and regulation

conservation and economic concerns

watershed management included

see also FSC 1993, forest stewardship council

applied ecology-

conservation biology, ecology, habitat management

invasive species management

rangeland management

restoration ecology

land management-

habitat conservation

sustainable ag

urban planning

sustainable ag-

environmental stewardship

farm profitability

farming communities

e.g. ability to produce food indefinitely, without causing damage to ecosystem health

see also erosion, irrigation/salinization, crop rotation

see also landraces, e.g. prairie grasses

mining laws-

SMCRA

surface mining control and reclamation act (1977)

1. regulates active coal mines

2. reclamation of abandoned mines

dept of interior admin

response to strip mining (1930+)

SMCRA

regulation:

1. standards of performance

2. permitting

3. bonding

4. inspection/enforcement

5. land restrictions

compare to 1945 strip mining practices

Fisheries laws-

monitor and protect fisheries resources

overfishing conference 1936

1957: Beverton and Holt did study on fish dynamics

goals:

1. max sustainable biomass yield

2. max sust. econ yield

3. secure employment

4. secure protein supply

5. income from export

6. bio and economic yield

UNCLOS-UN convention on law of the sea

EEZ-exclusive economic zones

12 mi = coastal sovereignty

200 mi = fishing restrictions

2004-UN made stricter laws on fisheries mgt.

1995 code of conduct for responsible fisheries

quotas, taxation, enforcement (USCG)

tragedy of the commons-

1968 Science article-Garrett Hardin

individual benefit, common damage

strict management of global common goods

see also overgrazing, pollution, privatization

"a fundamental extension of morality"

ozone depletion-

stratospheric ozone depletion

4% since 1970

ozone hole over antarctica

catalytic destruction of ozone by chlorine and bromine

halogen compounds CFCs (freons) and bromofluorocarbons (halons)

ODS ozone depleting substances

ozone blocks UVB 270-315 nm

Montreal protocol 1987 banned CFCs

O + O3 --> 2O2 (transparent)

Cl + O3 -->ClO + O2

ClO + O3 -->Cl + 2O2

effects:

1. ++ carcinomas

2. melanomas

3. cataracts

4. ++ tropospheric ozone (toxic)

5. kills cyanobacteria (rice nitrogen fixers)

Differentiate from Global Climate Change (GCC)

Water quality:

WQI is a composite of many qualities (see below)

BOD is a measure of the oxygen demand to decompose organic materials

BOD measures the rate of oxygen uptake by micro-organisms in a sample of water at a temperature of 20°C and over an elapsed period of five days in the dark.

The following is a list of indicators often measured by situational category:

Drinking water

▪ Alkalinity

▪ Color of water

▪ pH

▪ Taste and odor (geosmin, 2-methylisoborneol (MIB), etc)

▪ Dissolved metals and salts (sodium, chloride, potassium, calcium, manganese, magnesium)

▪ Microorganisms such as fecal coliform bacteria (Escherichia coli), Cryptosporidium, and Giardia lamblia

▪ Dissolved metals and metalloids (lead, mercury, arsenic, etc.)

▪ Dissolved organics: colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM), dissolved organic carbon

▪ Radon

▪ Heavy metals

▪ Pharmaceuticals

▪ Hormone analogs

Environmental

Chemical assessment

▪ Conductivity (also see salinity)

▪ Dissolved Oxygen

▪ nitrate-N

▪ orthophosphates

▪ Chemical oxygen demand (COD)

▪ Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)

▪ Pesticides

Physical assessment

▪ pH

▪ Temperature

▪ Total suspended solids (TSS)

▪ Turbidity

Electrical power numbers:

1 Watt

1000 Watts = 1 kW

These measure rate of energy use (this is called power)

energy use: power x time

kW x hours or kWh

example: 1 kWh is a 500 Watt device used for 2 hours

MWh is a megawatt hour

power plants are often rated in MW rating, or GW rating (gigawatt, or 1000 MW)

Toxicity:

LD50 is the measure of toxicity that kills 50% of the population after 2 weeks

The LD50 is usually expressed as the mass of substance administered per unit mass of test subject, such as grams of substance per kilogram of body mass.

As a measure of toxicity, LD50 is somewhat unreliable and results may vary greatly between testing facilities due to factors such as the genetic characteristics of the sample population, animal species tested, environmental factors and mode of administration.[3] Another weakness is that it measures acute toxicity only (as opposed to chronic toxicity at lower doses), and does not take into account toxic effects that do not result in death but are nonetheless serious (e.g. brain damage). There can be wide variability between species as well; what is relatively safe for rats may very well be extremely toxic for humans, and vice versa. In other words, a relatively high LD50 does not necessarily mean a substance is harmless, but a very low one is always a cause for concern.

see also LC50: lethal concentration

3 laws of thermodynamics:

1. you cannot win (no process can be more than 100% efficient)

2. you cannot break even (no process can be even 100% efficient)

3. you cannot get out of the game (entropy or disorder tends to increase in spontaneous processes)

See also Gibbs free energy: ∆G = ∆H - T∆S or "goldfish are hell without tartar sauce"

ENSO: el nine southern oscillation

coriolis effect: recall hurricane iniki

aquifer: have an example ready for the depletion/pollution and describe recharge rate

main soil types, main rock types, geological basics (eras etc.)

climate shifts: how do these effect migration and location of animals? Why not plants?

fertility rates, doubling times (rule of 70), demographic transitions, age-structure diagrams

nutritional requirements

sustainable ag (see above)

urban sprawl: define. How has the auto made this possible?

urban heat island effect: define

ore concentration curves

CAFE standards-definition, impact, exceptions

Populations:

K and r strategists

Rule of 70 for population growth doubling times

21/1000 numbers for population-why?

immigration vs. emigration-define

TBR-total birth rate

soil layers-see redbook on this one

Urban sprawl:

define, give alternatives

Urban planning, growth patterns

CARRYING CAPACITY-always on the AP exam: stable population, renewable resources, sustainable

"stable" is really negative feedback, equilibrium

Strategies:
K: mammals, take care of young, reach stable population at carrying capacity, few offspring, density dependent, low infant mortality

r: bacteria, lots of offspring, high infant mortality, limited by density independent factors (fire, flood, etc.)

see the growth formula: N is population, t is time, r is growth rate, K is carrying capacity:

∆N/∆t = rN(1-N/K)

n.b. as N/k -> 1, ∆N/∆t -> 0

negative feedback is the key here

r: less crowded, so N/K is close to 0, so rate is rN

K: follows carrying capacity, so N/K close to 1, so rate is close to 0

Malthus: population grows exponentially, food linearly, tf crash

see fig 7.12

Impact: IPAT
Impact = population * affluence * technology (we are high on all three)

imagine a village...

Demography: birthrate vs. deathrate

TFR: total fertility rate: number of offpring in female lifetime
2.1 is stable (why not 2.0?)

Natural Selection:
1. genetic variation (if none, then there is no outstanding survivor possible)
2. plenty of offspring, leading to…
3. stress on the system resources (food, water, land etc.)
4. outstanding survivors reproduce
5. incremental changes over generations improve adaptation (could be fast, like bacteria or fruit flies)

Regulation questions:

1. CERCLA stands for what?
2. What happened at Love canal?
3. How was CERCLA expanded in 1986?
4. How is the SuperFund funded now?
5. What two kinds of response actions are outlined in the CERCLA?
6. Who are the "potential responsible parties" under CERCLA?
7. What is the NCP revision, and how does it impact polluters?
8. What is the NPL and what is it's role?
9. What does RCRA stand for?
10. Why is it an improvement on the 1965 law on solid waste?
11. Explain "cradle to grave" requirements and give an example.
12. What is a TSDF, and how does it manage hazardous waste?
13. What is a "whistleblower" and how are they provided for in the RCRA?
14. What are the corporate arguments against the clean air act?
15. Describe the 1955, 1963, 1967, 1970, 1977 and 1990 acts and cite a common theme and opponent.
16. What was new in the 1990 law that may affect third world nations?
17. Last week the EPA made news regarding CO2 emissions and the clean air act. What happened?
18. What is the CWA, and how is it enforced?
19. What are navigable waters, and how are they defined?
20. How does the CWA treat point sources? Give at least two examples.
21. How is this different for non-point sources?
22. What is different with the WQA of 1987?
23. Explain the NEPA act of 1970, and its impact.
24. What happened off the coast of Santa Barbara in 1969 (also the year of Woodstock, and several assassinations), and how is it relevant today, March 2, 2010?
25. What is an EIS, and are they required today?
26. How does an EIS differ from an EA?

Explain the KT boundary (CT)

Who survived? Why?

Major human impact:
1. habitat loss
2. exploitation
3. exotic species introduction
4. predator/pest control
5. climate change

Sanitary Landfill: why so important

More notes on Population:

population: same species, same location

Factors: birthrate (natality), death rate (mortality), sex ratio, age distribution, growth rate (r), density, spatial distribution

birthrate is per 1000 people, so 20/2000 is 10/k per year

mortality is same

survivorship curves (see fig 7.2) sheep-long life, birds-predators, non specific, plants-lots of offspring don't survive

population growth rate = Brate - Drate

See Fig 7.1, see also 6.6 in c/c page 123

Sex ratio: women always on the right

age distribution curves: pyramid is + growth, parallel is stable growth, inverted pyramid is - growth

repro years = 15-40 for female humans

see figure 7.3

spatial distribution: flowers

emigration: out, immigration:in

biotic potential: inherent repro capacity: geese=10/year, elephants=0.5/year

population curves: see figure 7.5
lag section: lots of food, takes time to reproduce
exponential section: grows according to At = A0 e kt
deceleration: food supply outstripped by population
stable: balance
overshoot: too many for food supply

see figure 6.3 and 6.4 in c/c chapter 6, page 119
see also figure 6.8 in c/c on overshoot

limiting factors: environmental resistance
extrinsic: predators, food source
intrinsic: self controlled, mice fertility drops in overpopulation (negative feedback)

see figure 6.10 in c/c, extinction rate

density dependent: predators, food
density independent: frost, flood, fire

limiting factors: energy, waste, raw materials

CARRYING CAPACITY-always on the AP exam: stable population, renewable resources, sustainable

"stable" is really negative feedback, equilibrium

More on ecosystems:

Chapter 6 notes: Ecosystems and communities
Succession-communites proceed through series of recognizable, predicatable changes in structure over time
long lasting and stable
factors: climate, food, invasion etc.
climax comm. stable, long lasting result of succession
determined by climate, water, substrate and org. type

primary succession-no existing organisms
secondary succession-destruction of existing ecosystem

Primary succession-terrestrial-
factors: substrate (e.g. soil), climate, repro structures, rate of growth, organic matter, water
pioneer comm.- first to colonize bare rock (e.g. lichen)
later comm.-soil available, holds water (life)
1 pioneer stage
lichen: mutualistic: algae/bacteria(photosynthesis) + fungi to hold on
2 secondary stage: soil: retains water, structural support
(succession: plants shade lichens)
3 climax community-stable, diverse, interconnected, interdependent, many niches, recycle biomass (constant)

process of succession is called a sere, stages are seral stages
see fig 6.3-imagine driving from puako to waimea

Primary succession-aquatic
oceanic-stable
limnotic/riparian-transitional, fills with sediment
stages:
1. aquatic vegetation-e.g. aquarium, leads to wet soil and terrestrial networks (roots, wet meadow)
2. transitional: biomass of trees creates top layers of soil, transition to terrestrial climax comm.

imagine trip from middle of lake to shore-see all transitions
bogs=transitional stage from shore to dry land (Ireland, Scotland)

Secondary Succession-terrestrial
recall: existing comm. is replaced
e.g. pond fills to become a meadow, then climax forest
can reverse: beaver dams: land to aquatic
see also human dams, exponential decay curve

Biomes-------
determined by climate, altitude, water (precipitation), temperature
similar niches and habitats in each biome